But the second wave of violence in the Rift Valley discredited this analysis. But how could they criticize or denounce a group which they had previously supported? Moreover, some human rights organizations had difficulty avoiding radical ethnicity in politics.3Throughout the 1990s, Kenya was apparently endowed with a strong civil society which offered a viable alternative agenda. Thus, the multi-faceted and distinct contribution of the mosque in cultural, economic, social and political aspects of the lives of the earthquake-affected communities. The relationship between politics and Islam in Kenya alongside the neo-traditional movements is conditioned by the consanguinity between Christianity and the colonial. The Kibaki government then resorted to denouncing an agreement (Memorandum of Understanding) the ODM signed with Namlef (the National Muslim Leaders Forum), saying it would divide the country along religious lines.9 This controversy mainly aimed to stimulate factionalism within the Muslim community, which has always had difficulty protecting its faade of unity. 1. Poverty, starvation, and violence are rampant. Columbia University Press: New York, NY. 4Since the return of multiparty politics, the 2007 General Elections are the only ones in which religious institutions have been most discreet or the least decisive about. In the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa region of Pakistan, in the aftermath of the 2005 earthquake, psycho-social healing was facilitated by creating a shared meaning of life with the help of spiritual guidance by Imams through the platform of mosques. However, the National Rainbow Coalition (NARC) split soon after winning elections. I argue that disasters caused by natural hazards similarly need to be addressed in a pluralistic manner; and that both state and religious institutions can reduce disaster risk by embracing pluralism, by strengthening their capacities. (2008). They also engaged in a reflection exercise on their role in breeding the causes of the disaster. RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS. On the other hand, any society which does not display capacities for resilience is seen as vulnerable and unable to cope, more or less fatalistically living under a continual reign of terror from the environment (Oliver-Smith, 1996: 312). Americans Have Positive Views About Religion's Role in Society, but This influence can be analyzed by examining religious pluralism in Kenya. This paper will thereby seek to understand the various ways in which majority religious institutions have so far been involved in DRR efforts, and in what way they can fill existing gaps. Oliver-Smith, A. The results of DNA tests on the Ethiopian were released four years later.28The President also promised to find the bones of Dedan Kimathi, the most famous Mau Mau leader. They called upon the two camps to talk and to share power. Moreover, they share the same development-oriented nation-building ideology through development. 39Right from the initial violence that followed the announcement of official election results, Mungiki factions participated in ethnic cleansing that affected some parts of the sprawling Mathare Valley slums. However, the situation remained particularly tense by the end of February2008.12. To hit the latter, Mungikis destabilization methods took various forms: murder of local administrators in the ministers constituency, financing an opponent, threatening the bus service controlled by the politicians son, destruction of coffee plantations and assaulting patrons of the country club he owns near Nairobi. The nature of the debate also differed between the two Christian denominations. Local Faith Communities and the Promotion of Resilience in Contexts of Humanitarian Crisis, Journal of Refugee Studies, 28(2), 202-221. Children and Cultural Influences in a Natural Disaster: Flood Response in Surakarta, Indonesia, International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 13: 76-84. Based on extensive surveys conducted between 2006 and 2010 with affected communities in the Indian and Sri Lankan coastal regions, researchers at RMIT Universitys Globalism Research Center in Australia found that religious centers tend to become an important refuge for disaster victims and their role in this regard needs to be acknowledged (Shaw et al., 2010: 10). Is this still the case at a time when this country is in dire need of a unifying factor, a social contract and respect for human rights? Wisner, Ben (2010). Section 1 Its politicization radicalized with the first ethnic cleansing between 1992 and 1993. The Kibaki era blurred these boundaries. It is the return of warrior ideals which makes violence the only hope of success for many young people. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 240-59. When the devastating hurricane Nigel struck in 1997, Fijians were no longer able to materially support their institutions; however, with overseas support specifically to the Christian churches, Christians in Fiji received adequate help from their church, and according to Gillard and Paton (1999), most importantly, lowered their subjective perception of disaster stress. (eds) Cultural Competency for Emergency and Crisis Management: Concept, Theories and Case Studies. A strong presence of Christian rituals is aimed at protecting against eruptions of the Vesuvius and Etna volcanoes in southern Italy (Chester et al., 2008). Once in power, the new ruling elite worked with the clergy. Was it even possible to say they were playing the referee or could be assumed to be neutral in negotiations aimed at resolving the crisis? The role of religious institutions in preventing, eradicating, and 11The watu wa pwani (Coastal people) stopped supporting the government for two main reasons. Westview: Boulder, CO, USA. Private one-on-one and family counseling was given when Imams lead funeral prayers and visited the houses of families who had lost their loved ones (Cheema et al., 2014: 2220). 90, pp. 34Indeed, State leadership largely contributed to the focus of the 2007 election campaign on Mungiki. The Role of Religious Institutions - OpenEdition Journals Religious institutions | UNESCO UIS In many ways, pluralism today represents a powerful ideal meant to resolve the question of how to get along in a conflict-ridden world (Bender and Klassen, 2010: 1). President Mois networks were still at work and the fortunes of the Kenyatta family, which controlled the party, presumably enhanced this fidelity. The elites refused to accept Mungikis presence in the public space and in the same vein denied the relevance of social issues that the sect dramatically raised. It has been encapsulated in all faiths, from Dana, one of Hinduisms and Buddhisms vital practices, to Islams Zakat, and Christian charity. 24Why did the Catholic Church appear particularly partial and specifically support the president after the 2007 elections despite the contested election results? Indeed, the contemporary sect portrays itself as having direct links with the movement of the 1950s from which it has borrowed its objectives, methods and rituals. Bramadat, P. (2009). Routledge: New York, NY. 6 Isaac Ongiri, Muslim lobbies take issue with Michukis deportation denial. The Standard, 24 October 2007 ; Ex-terror suspects case withdrawn. The Daily Nation, 27 October 2007; Sunguta West Political Repercussions of Somali Conflict Spread to Kenya. The Jamestown Foundation, 7 November 2007, URL: https://jamestown.org/brief/political-repercussions-of-somali-conflict-spread-to-kenya/ [archive]; Scores arrested in terror Hunt. The Daily Nation, 15 December 2007. In Central Province, the primary elections to nominate NARC candidates were held in parishes and were presided over by priests. Thus, the sect found itself increasingly in the news but gradually lost its religious legitimacy. 5 Coast leaders draw up wish list for President, The Standard, 14 August 2007. People interact with a variety of different agents of socialization over the life course, and these individuals, organizations, and experiences channel the beliefs and understandings that constitute religious preferences - and these preferences help . Gaillard, J-C (2007). It would replace the Kwekwe squad that had been disbanded in January2008.29 The mission of this police force was difficult to define as the leadership still needed the services of Mungiki. The findings of this systematic review that emerged from content analysis are summarized in 11 themes: religious institutions' potential for disaster management, preparedness of religious institutions for disasters, response, recovery, the social capital, partnership with all stakeholders, collaboration and communication between mental health . The Mungiki, ethnic violence and the politics of the Moi Succession in Kenya, 19872002. African Affairs, no. Lo, H-W.A., Su, C-Y., and Chou, F.H-C. (2012). How all religious faiths advocate for environmental protection - UNEP As the regime became more and more authoritarian, public services disappeared in most parts of the city and State presence shrunk in governance functions under the pressure of structural adjustment programs. The role of faith-based institutions in urban disaster risk reduction for immigrant communities, Natural Hazards, 103, 299-316. For a lot of Muslims, it was difficult to get identity cards or passports. 13 Integrated Regional Information Networks (IRIN), Kenya: Armed and dangerous. 22 February 2008. The conflict showed their helplessness and their inability to influence politics. Clouds but Little Rain. Muslim leaders managed to control their flock. USAID (2012). Even though churches did not intend to choose between the two camps, thereby losing touch with the majority, their stand was never clearly visible. The security forces arrested very many lower-class ordinary Kenyans only because they were Kikuyu, poor and young. We are harsher with our church leaders because they are the ones who are supposed to stick their neck out one questions of justice and honesty. However, by only looking at this aspect of Mungiki activities, they cannot find any explanation for the movements unique success. Along with disaster relief measures in the recovery phase, the efforts of Christian churches have been a typical case of care-oriented management, although less regard has been given to the disaster prevention/mitigation phase and the disaster preparation phase (Ha, 2015: 1320). 5677. True to staunch Protestant principles, they criticized themselves publicly while Catholics remained silent on the topic, even though the blogs run by the clergy (particularly those hosted by expatriates) showed their concerns. How religions and religious leaders can help to combat the MAUPEU, H. (2002b). 23Support for Kibaki from the Catholic leadership was nationwide. But to what extent can religious institutions find a seat in the formal arena of disaster management? 10 It is an old dynamic. 20 Church on a soul-searching journey. The Standard, 2 March, 2008. 102, pp. Religion and Politics | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy In the beginning of the new millennium, the KHRC no longer wanted to deal with cases of young supporters of this neo-prophetic group. This challenge was even more intolerable because the new candidate was not a politician and therefore faced great odds in winning the election. 185. They especially targeted politicians with whom they had worked and who would have betrayed them (at least this is the consideration of Mungiki leaders). Obviously Mungiki considers itself an embodiment of a fraction of the youth. 4 In reality, Coast Province is a melting pot for various communities where Christianity and Islam are represented more or less equally. 36Tension between Mungiki and the State leadership can be interpreted as a consequence of the wounded pride of senior authorities. This is another failure that the regime attempted to erase from peoples memory by installing a bronze statue of the hero in central Nairobi. Many youths belonging to Muslim organizations were arrested and handed over to American forces.6Several suspects of Somali origin found themselves denouncing their Kenyan nationality. Monash University, RMIT University: Australia. The earliest universities, in early medieval Italy, trained their students in canon law; subsequently theology came to be studied, and then the humanities. The tenth constituency was taken by Abdikadir Hussein Mohamed, who ran on a Safina ticket. However, from 1992, Kibaki, a Catholic, seemed to be their favourite candidate. Religion as an integral part of determining and reducing Climate Change and Disaster Risk: An agenda for research, In: Voss M. (Ed) Der Klimawandel. Explain what mile Durkheim tried to understand about religion. 17.3 Sociological Perspectives on Religion - Sociology The Influence of Religiosity on Charitable Behavior: A COPPS Investigation, The Journal of Socio-Economics, 41: 373-83. Religious beliefs motivated Martin Luther King Jr. and other civil rights activists to risk their lives to desegregate the South. At the same time, some committee members of a Cambodian temple had bought a set of emergency kits for the temple and encouraged members to have emergency kits at home. MAUPEU, H. (2003). ), which are only partly homogenized by the Swahili culture. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Catholic Church developed structures in many regions where it had been present. 30 On this subject, refer to H. Maupeu, 2003 and 2007. Religion clearly plays an important role in American life. All submissions should fall within the scope of religion and/or humanitarian principles, be respectful, evidence-based and of public interest. People also read lists articles that other readers of this article have read.. Since his ascent to power, he has honoured the memory of Mau Mau heroes. Additionally, Ha (2015) has found that Confucianism is reflected in many principles of disaster management, such as the chain of command, span of control, etc. Now let's take a closer look at specific institutions like education, family and religion. KAGWANJA, P.M. (2003). They controlled groups of youth which were ever ready to fight for a variety of causes. Chester et al. If Micere Mugos mother sang for her ethnic folktales, the Bible is a national store house of folktales. This case triggered off response strategies by Mungiki, which staged targeted attacks in constituencies represented by M. Kibakis close allies. I argue that religious institutions can play a vital role in the immediate aftermath of disasters, while also proving to be the space for long-term healing. At Risk: natural hazards, peoples vulnerability and disasters, Second Edition. 2549. Following the elections, this sect became one of the big actors in violence. It is no coincidence that local religious organizations are at the forefront of providing relief. (Oxfam, 2012). IRIN journalists13viewed it differently. 20, no. 345373). For centuries if not longer, religious congregations have played critical roles in providing and supporting social services within communities. However, Makau Mutua seems to politically disagree with this movement or at least he does not appreciate their political strategies. Prashantham B. Each of these institutions plays a fundamental role in both creating and supporting society. 9 In 2002, NARC, led by M. Kibaki, signed a similar agreement with organizations representing Muslims. At the same time, the role of religion in the field of disaster management, when considering related topics in international conferences, related questions on the Internet, have also been explored (Gillard and Paton 1999; Ha, 2015; Taylor and Peace, 2015). It has caused identity disorientation (p.114), which explains in a deeper sense the post-colonial States failure to adapt because it forgets or simply casts away its memory, and is set according to Eurocentric norms and values. But speeches by pro-government figures were either lukewarm or highly critical. It therefore advocated for reduced powers of a Government that was increasingly absent. Members of the KHRC shunned the Mungiki cases because they were afraid of being used by a sect that took advantage of the courts to try to gain publicity for its activities. International and Cultural Psychology Series. (2010). 19Finally, Muslim organizations came out of the post-2007 elections crisis relatively more strengthened in their political role. Thus, some bloggers called for an end to dioceses based on ethnic boundaries. Oxfam International: Oxford, UK. In the 2007 general elections, a popular leader of the Pentecostal movement, Bishop Pius Muiru, head of the Maximum Miracle Ministries, ran in the presidential elections but did not attract a large following. So, until the 1980s, Catholics remained discreet over national debates. Hindu nationalism and the social welfare strategy, In: Clarke, G. and Jennings, M. (Eds) Development, Civil Society and Faith-based Organizations: Bridging the Sacred and the Secular. Indeed, for politicians out to woo majorities, Muslim populations become particularly important communities. Indeed, the main religious structures, which are the most involved in public services, continued to work with the ruling class and appeared to endorse the Kibaki camp. Like in the 1990s, Catholic parishes received a number of displaced families. Their response was to call for negotiations and to receive victims of massacres, mostly without discrimination. In 2002, Mungiki made similar statements. In an extensive survey of religious institutions in Philadelphia, Cnaan found that 91 percent of the congregations surveyed had at least one community program that supplied goods and services to . Institutions serving religious or sacred functions may be the first port of call in practical terms (Shaw et al., 2010). Even though most Imams in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa region of Pakistan did not engage in economic activities, including pertaining to assisting with livelihood, people who gathered at the mosque for prayers, as well as socialize and coordinate relief activities, shared information and made livelihood decisions to support each other at the local level (Cheema et al., 2014: 2216). Narrations kikuyu des lections gnrales en 2002 (Kenya). Politique Africaine, no. More women at the helm of the Max Planck Society The post-2007 crisis clearly demonstrated this. The Muranga Catholic diocese newsletter, Mwihoko, was banned several times and reputed to be quite controversial both politically (during the Moi era) and socially (especially against multinationals). Some think that despite his age (over 75), he had not given up his political ambitions. Religious leaders, -based organizations, and faith faith communities can play a major role in saving lives and reducing illness related to COVID-19. From John Lonsdales point of view, this interest stems from theological reasons: Kenyan political theology, a local version (some would call it a local subversion) of liberation theory, has created a cyclic tendency in the State cult.2 This outstanding analyst of the Kenyan political culture is right in asserting that religious leaders have a fascination with the State. Power to Uhuru: Youth Identity and Generational Politics in Kenyas 2002 Elections. African Affairs, 105, pp. 505520. For example, in Estonia, most religious "nones" (62%) say religious institutions play an important role in helping the poor and needy. Tags: disaster recovery, faith-based organizations, humanitarian action, multi-faith, religious leaders. On the other hand, the political direction taken by churches seemed to be headed for troubled waters. Peter Karanja).20 They stressed that their credibility had been terribly soiled by the crisis Kenya experienced. Lglise catholique et la dmocratisation knyane (19922002) in G. SERAPHIN (ed. The responses invariably involve the moral and ethical core of the belief system and include a deep delving into concepts of both social and cosmic justice, sin and retribution, causality, the relationship of the secular to the sacred, and the existence and nature of the divine (Oliver-Smith, 1996: 308). Another potential post-disaster role of the Cambodian temples in Auckland is to serve as a venue for sharing livelihood ideas and support, which would be useful to help people recover from damage and move on (Ngin et al., 2020: 308). Mungiki appeared like a federation of various groups, or like a trademark of an identity factory. Most publications in the Kikuyu language came from the Catholic printing press and the main intellectuals, thinkers on ethnic nationalism were Catholic. Christianity's Role in the Development of Modern Institutions Write an article and join a growing community of more than 166,400 academics and researchers from 4,650 institutions. The prelate was at the time living within a community in the Kangemi area (Nairobi) where he noted first hand the degeneration of public services in Nairobi slums. Community vulnerability and resilience in disaster risk reduction: an example from Phojal Nalla, Himachal Pradesh, India, Regional Environmental Change, 18, 2073-2087. Creative Commons - Attribution - Partage dans les Mmes Conditions 4.0 International - CC BY-SA 4.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/, Voir la notice dans le catalogue OpenEdition, Plan du site Contact Crdits du site Flux de syndication, Politique de confidentialit Gestion des cookies Signaler un problme, Nous adhrons OpenEdition dit avec Lodel Accs rserv, Vous allez tre redirig vers OpenEdition Search, Les Cahiers dAfrique de lEst / The East African Review, Part II: Violence in the Post-Election Period, Enseignement suprieur dans les Afriques: le temps des rformes, La diffusion des plantes amricaines dans la rgion des Grands Lacs, Global History, East Africa and The Classical Traditions, LObservatoire des Grands Lacs en Afrique, Orphelins, enfants vulnrables et jeunesse violente, Territoires de la musique et culture mondialise Dar es Salaam, Portail de ressources lectroniques en sciences humaines et sociales, Muslim population mostly in support of the opposition, https://jamestown.org/brief/political-repercussions-of-somali-conflict-spread-to-kenya/, Catalogue des 614 revues. During the colonial era, the State systematically used Christian missions to penetrate communities and to legitimize itself. A number of barriers exist to fully utilize the resources of religious institutions in DRR and long-term recovery. The GNDR report also found that peoples own knowledge and capacity can most usefully combine with the outreach of local government. Its moderate and conservative stance were perceived as guarantees against excesses feared to be the hallmark of a ruling class that had difficulties in converting to democratic values. During election campaigns word went round that his church had excommunicated him and considered him apostate. Besides, and this is its originality in the grey prophetic sphere. The new Vice-Presidents are Claudia Felser from the Max Planck Institute for Chemical Physics of Solids, Sibylle Gnter from the Max Planck . The Killings Fields, Nairobi, 2007. As Oliver-Smith argues similarly, the assumption of vulnerability because of reliance on religious beliefs has to do with a profound ignorance of the socio-cultural context in which traditional societies view and enact religion (Oliver-Smith, 1996: 210).
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