Civil War Ships - Civil War Academy Commanders Neil P. Chatelain From June to September, the Board deliberated and submitted recommendations to Welles. Civil War High Commands (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001), p 79-80. On his own, he determined Mason and Slidell to be contraband of war, subject to seizure. (other City-class ironclads were built in St. Louis, and Carondelet.) Pensacola Historical Society Quarterly, Volume 9, No. Civil War NavyThe Magazine, Volume 4, No. Union Naval Yards & Stations Civil War Navy At its apogee, the squadron consisted of three steam-powered ironclad warshipsincluding the CSS Virginia, which famously dueled the Unions ironclad USS Monitor at the Battle of Hampton Roads (1862)and more than a half-dozen small gunboats, converted civilian vessels, and torpedo boats. Eventually, the government commandeered space on all privately owned blockade runners and even built and operated some of its own late in the war. The same day that Meigs ordered the city-class gunboats to be built for the army, Welles advertised for proposals to construct "iron-clad steam vessels of war" for the Navy. 900,000 How many fought for the Union over all? In May 1862, the Confederates burned the navy yard when they were forced to leave it and it was reoccupied by Union forces; after this, the Gosport name was dropped and it was renamed Norfolk Navy Yard to avoid confusion with the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard in Portsmouth, Maine. On November 7, a fleet of 77 warships under Flag Officer Samuel F. DuPont steamed into Port Royal Sound in South Carolina. A top secret military acoustic detection system designed to spot enemy submarines first heard what the U.S. Navy suspected was the Titan submersible implosion Missing Submarine: Expedition Unknown Host Josh Gates The battle was a draw, but it illustrated that the future belonged to iron and steel ships. Forts Walker and Beauregard guarding the harbor were battered into submission by the big warships. Updated on: June 14, 2023 / 8:19 PM / CBS/AP. Navy instituted a crash ship buying program. Key Elements in the Anaconda Plan Timeline The Anaconda Plan consisted of two main objectives: Commanders During that period, some 150 vessels arrived unmolested in the port of Charleston alone. David McDougal, March 13, 1861-June 4, 1861 2, Spring 1978, p 12-29. Naval facilities within the borders of the Confederacy, such as those at Pensacola and Key West, Florida, Port Royal Sound, South Carolina, the Gosport Navy Yard in Virginia, as well as the Cornelius K. Stribling, November 1862-November 1864 Key West Navy Yard List of ships named Union - Wikipedia Commanders The international search and rescue efforts kicked into high gear in the past few days. The US Navy detected an implosion Sunday and told rescuers, an The USS Galena (6 guns) and USS New Ironsides (18 guns) were more traditional wooden, steam-powered vessels with auxiliary sail power, but both were built with heavy plates of iron on the sides of their hulls. Andrew H. Foote, February 1861-June, 1861 Robert A. Lynn and William E. Whyte III. Theodorus Bailey, November 1862-1864. The Washington Navy Yard, lying on the Anacostia River, served as a major supply and repair station for Union ships, as well as the dock of entry for trips President Lincoln would take to the front lines, as he did in the summer of 1862, the summer of 1864, and the spring of 1865. Gosport (Norfolk) Navy Yard Stay up-to-date on our FREE educational resources & professional development opportunities, all designed to support your work teaching American history. Additional Information After the capture of New Orleans in April 1862, Union naval forces repurposed the numerous civilian shipyards and dry-docks for their own use, helping to maintain the blockade and gain control over the remainder of the Mississippi River. Around 90 vessels of all types were in the Navys inventory. The Union: A Guide to Federal Archives Relating to the Civil War (Washington, DC: National Archives and Records Administration, 1998), p 494. The yard also held the Naval Asylum for disabled and infirm sailors. Its capture resulted in almost 1,100 heavy guns and a large amount of war material. Gideon Welles also acted in the first months of 1861 to build new classes of warships that would have a direct effect on the war. The Mohican-class screw sloop Kearsarge was laid down here in 1861 and commissioned in 1862. 2.1 Million What did Helmut von Moltke (Prussian Chief of staff) say about the war? Situated where the Mystic and Charles Rivers merge, the Charlestown Navy Yard, commonly called the Boston Navy Yard, held one of the few precious naval dry-docks before the war. In the words of Gustavus Fox, the Union assistant secretary of the Navy, the measure was "not by what entereth into their port's but what proceedeth out." South Carolina Encyclopedia, http://www.scencyclopedia.org/sce/entries/port-royal-naval-station/. The Anaconda Plan, however, would require far more warships than the Navy then possessed to close off some 3,500 miles of Confederate coastline. Cargos first were shipped to transfer points, such as the Bahamas, then loaded into fast and sleek blockade runners, most built in Britain. In July, the Board recommended splitting each blockading group in half operationally, into North and South squadrons along the Atlantic coast and East and West squadrons inside the Gulf of Mexico. On its first day on duty, March 8, 1862, the Virginia destroyed several Union ships, but the triumph was short-lived. As the Union built up its blockades, the Confederacy perfected means of running them. In early April, Lincoln sent expeditions of infantry, artillery, and supplies to reinforce both forts, escorted by powerful navy warships. Charles S. McCauley, August 1, 1860-April 20, 1861 In northern territory, the station commander typically oversaw recruiting, storehouses, hospitals, marine detachments, ordnance works, and naval construction and received all local requisitions, handling administrative matters and inspecting commissioned vessels in portthey did not have operational control over navy squadrons unless so instructed by the secretary, but often dispatched individual vessels on their own authority to comply with orders from Washington. Dana Wegner. The Royal Canadian Navy Samuel F. Du Pont, November 1861-July 5, 1863 This modern force of ships required equally modern support facilities ashore. Thousands of men went to the bottom of the sea with some of the largest ships ever built after they were sunk. Commanders William E. Whyte III. The Unions naval infrastructure was dealt a crippling blow on April 20, 1861, when the ill-conceived and botched evacuation of the Norfolk Naval Shipyard at Gosport, Virginia led to the Confederate capture of over 1,000 naval guns,irreplaceable dry dock, and repair facilities. Boston Navy Yard. A New Navy Yard, Burlington Weekly Free Press (Burlington, VT), September 6, 1861, p 1, col 7. To ease blockade command and control difficulties, Welles divided the fleet into the Atlantic Blockading Squadron, covering Virginia to Key West, and the Gulf Blockading Squadron, stretching from Key West to the Mexican border. Enforcing the blockade was the most daunting mission the Union Navy faced in the first year of the war. A battalion of marines was dispatched to protect the yard, arriving in 1863; in the meantime, 150 yard contractors often drilled and were called in emergencies as a makeshift defense force. The Navy increased in size from 7,600 sailors in March 1861, to 22,000 that December. John M. Berrien, November 16, 1864-1865 Josh Gates, the host of Discovery s Expedition: Unknown, revealed today that he dove in the same Naval facilities within the borders of the Confederacy, such as those at Pensacola and Key West, Florida, Port Royal Sound, South Carolina, the Gosport Navy Yard in Virginia, as well as the yards at Cairo and Mound City, were subordinate commands of the squadrons they supported. Steam Frigate at Navy Yard during President Abraham Lincolns visit. A naval station was established at Key West in 1823 to combat piracy. The Union Navy grew rapidly during the Civil War, expanding from some 9,000 officers and men in 1861 to over 118,000 by 1865. Auxiliary Ships 63 Anderson (DD411). During the war, the navy would expand in response to the threat of German U-Boats. Most of the Navys vessels were on duty in foreign waters and only three or four ships were available for active duty. Captured Confederate vessels, such as the CSS Tennessee from the Battle of Mobile Bay in 1864, were sent here for overhaul and repair. Shipyards along the Atlantic Coast at Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Washington, D.C., Norfolk, Pensacola, and Mare Island Shipyard in San Francisco Bay, had grown to serve the Navys needs and were frequently populated with warships. On September 4, the timberclads USS, At the end of 1861, one event at sea nearly derailed all the progress the navy had made in establishing the legitimacy of the blockade in the eyes of Great Britain and France. It was widely known that the Confederate government was seeking closer ties to Great Britain and France, and that Mason and Slidell had been sent to London and Paris to make the case for increased European support for the Confederacy. The Confederacy had few ships in 1861, and Navy Secretary Stephen Mallory decided to invest in the new technology of ironclads. Navy Further north, on May 24, the crew of the USS Pawnee received the surrender of Alexandria, Virginia on the Potomac River, just opposite Washington, D.C. At Fort Sumter, however, the expedition was turned back as the Confederates bombarded the fort the same day that Pickens was resupplied. The United States Navy and the City of Key West, Florida (Key West, FL: The Key West Press, 1953), p 5. The Port Royal Working Parties, Civil War Times Illustrated, Volume XV, No. Employing 5,000 workers by the end of the war, the Brooklyn Navy Yard built a number of warships, including Oneida, Adirondack, Lackawanna, Ticonderoga, Maumee, Nyack, Tallapoosa, and Octorara and converted several hundreds of civilian ships for wartime service and hosted the Russian Navy in 1863. Confederate Secretary of the Navy, Stephen Mallory, scrambled to find ships and even initiated offensive operations: attacking Union merchant shipping on the high seas. If the ports were closed, violators would need to be tried in state courts where the port was located, an impossibility since they fell under Confederate control. Submersibles are designed to withstand crushing underwater pressures, like those 12,500 feet below the surface. Over four years of war, around 8,000 successful runs were made through the blockade, yet more than 20,000 vessels used Southern ports during the four pre-war years. Down there, the pressure is about 400 times greater than at sea level. He is a graduate of Gettysburg College with a BA in History and Public History and Civil War Era Studies minors. The two gunboats also provided cover for the Federal soldiers as they were withdrawn after the battle. Note that all ships in this category should also be categorised under the correct subcategory of Category:Ships of the United States Navy. Mallorys only major omission was his delay in seeing the advantage of Confederate government control of blockade runners bringing in strategic supplies; not until later in the war did the government begin closer supervision of blockade-running vessels. Virginia Parks, Alan Rick, and Norman Simmons. Hull Jr., November, 1864-1865 Cotton exports after the implementation of the blockade dropped to 10 percent of pre-war levels, wrecking the Confederate economy. The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 755 total. Titanic, the biggest steamship in the world at the time, hit an iceberg four days into its first trans-Atlantic voyage in April 1912.. There were frequent clashes between Union gunboats and Confederate artillerymen along the Potomac during most of the first summer of the war, including a failed landing by 50 Union sailors at Mathias Point, midway between Washington, D.C. and the Chesapeake Bay on June 27. Wilkes moved his ship to Havana and waited. The naval side of the Civil War was a revolutionary one. While the Federal armies actually stamped out Confederate land resistance, the increasingly effective Federal naval effort must not be overlooked. Commanders Wilkes formed a plan. Gosport was also a naval ordnance facility while the Confederates held it. Edward W. Carpenter, 1865-1866. William H. Gardner, June 4, 1861-May 27, 1862 Garrett J. Pendergrast, October 1861-November 1862 5 at starving the UK has merely to do with the serviceable ships available, how many ships have . The army also maintained a recruiting and training camp nearby. The next day, Army troops landed and captured the forts along with 700 prisoners. Steam engines also required prodigious amounts of coal to fire their boilers. Cairo and Mound City Naval Station. Robert Ballard found the Titanic wreckage in 1985. Here's how he Josh Gates aboard the Titian submersible Twitter. The captures of Hatteras, Ship Island and Port Royal were among the Unions few victories of 1861 (Fernandina fell to a Union naval force in March, 1862). Hundreds of Northern commercial ships were bought or leased and pressed into navy service. After that, Mound Citys wharves saw continuous service and often held the flagship of the Mississippi River Squadron. New gunboats, ironclads, and captured ports began to turn the tide against the Confederacy as 1861 turned into 1862 and beyond. Roswell P. Flower Memorial Library. Aerial, Before the war, work began on Fort Massachusetts, and a joint Confederate Army-Navy-Marine effort briefly occupied the island in mid-1861. Each country had launched their own iron-covered warship, and American shipbuilders and army commanders in 1861 sought the advantages of iron protected gunboats to operate on the western rivers, which were lined with Confederate forts and shore batteries (the Navy would take over control of gunboat operations on the rivers in 1862). Russia-Ukraine war latest: People 'screaming under rubble' after The Confederacys last open Atlantic port, Wilmington, North Carolina, successfully withstood a Federal naval attack by Porter on defending Fort Fisher when Butlers army failed to coordinate its attack properly in December 1864, but it fell one month later to Porter and to an ably conducted army assault led by Alfred H. Terry. Navy Chester G. Hearn. A makeshift fleet of refitted merchant ships and side-wheel steamers helped the navy grow quickly. The blockade was a controversial proposal. Lincoln favored a policy of economic subjugation of the Confederate states while also defeating them militarily. Most of the vessels were technologically up to date: 24 of the newest ships were built with steam propulsion that drove a screw propeller or paddle wheels. It had over 700 ships, including battleships, cruisers, destroyers, and submarines. Samuel F. Du Pont, 1855-1861 Lincoln, accepting the risk in identifying the South as a belligerent nation, signed the order establishing the blockade on April 19, 1861, just five days after the fall of Fort Sumter. During the first year of the Civil War, the U. S. Navy developed into a powerful weapon that helped the Union win the ultimate victory. Confederate Titanic around 400 miles off the coast of Newfoundland, Canada. Commanders On November 8, San Jacinto fired a shot across the bow of the British steamship RMS Trent, carrying the two diplomats, and brought the ship to a stop. They selected a site on Narragansett Bay in August or September 1861. John B. Montgomery, June 3, 1862-1863 By late 1863, however, it was becoming too large. The Souths major goal was keeping supplies moving by sea, using blockade runners that could speed past Union ships. The monitor Kalamazoo was laid down here in 1863, but construction was suspended in 1865, though the monitor Miantonomoh was built and commissioned here in 1865. Unfortunately, only about thirty of these beasts were put into the water, compared to more than sixty that entered the Union fleet. If the ports were closed, violators would need to be tried in state courts where the port was located, an impossibility since they fell under Confederate control. A lack of qualified sailors plagued the Navy for most of the first year of the war. (June 2022) This is a list of ships and classes of the Soviet Navy . The number of officers rose from 1,300 in 1861, to 6,700 by the end of the war. The Union Navy began the war facing many challenges. Steam engines also required prodigious amounts of coal to fire their boilers. In April 1861, some 48 naval vessels, about half the fleet, were laid up for long-term repairs or maintenance in various shipyards. Andrew A. Harwood, July 22, 1862- December 31, 1863 Port Royal was also the location for two temporary monitor repair and maintenance Port Royal Working Parties in 1863 and 1864, the first aboard the commercial screw steamer Relief, and the second aboard the private commercial steamer Commanderthese vessels had dozens of skilled workers with special tools, supplies, and spare parts to effect repairs, modifications, and even overhauls to the monitors serving the South Atlantic Blockading Squadronthey also helped to defoul the monitors. The steam frigate USS. The Civil War Naval Encyclopedia (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2011), Volume 1, p 516. John V. Quarstein. Nineteen ships were constructed there (including Wachusett, Housatonic, Canandaigua, Pequot, Saco, Maratanza, Genesee, and Tioga) and 43 purchased vessels were equipped at the yard during the war. June 21, 2023 2:42pm. Hundreds of Northern commercial ships were bought or leased and pressed into navy service. Most of the vessels were technologically up to date: 24 of the newest ships were built with steam propulsion that drove a screw propeller or paddle wheels. The vessels design was controversial: no iron ship without sails and so few guns had ever been built before. Zed H. Burns. Stay up-to-date on the American Battlefield Trust's battlefield preservation efforts, travel tips, upcoming events, history content and more. The hull of the burned-out USS Merrimack was used to construct the CSS Virginia, the Confederates first ironclad. Also, the first sinking of a warship by a submarine occurred on February 17, 1864, when the Confederate submersible Hunley sank the blockader USS Housatonic. 3. Paul H. Silverstone. By the time of Lees surrender, Lincolns navy numbered 626 warships, of which 65 were ironclads. By wars end, it numbered 671 vessels. The extensive yard encompassed over 130 acres of land and possessed shipyards, a dry-dock, a hospital and a floating dock. It was one of the most important naval facilities in the Union war effort. The R.M.S. Decks were strengthened, magazines were built below the waterlines, and crew quarters were expanded. On June 3, the Confederate, On August 28, Union warships opened fire on Forts Clark and Hatteras guarding Hatteras Inlet in North Carolina, . Almost any vessel that could mount a gun or two on its superstructure was put on blockade duty. At Fort Pickens, five companies of soldiers were successfully landed on April 12, and the continued presence of the steam frigate USS Powhatan offshore prevented an immediate attack on the fort. Named the, the warship was designed by Swedish engineer John Ericsson, who had pioneered the development of propellers and improved steam engines. The largest and most powerful vessels were six ships of the Niagara- and Merrimack- classes of steam-powered frigates (mounting up to 40 guns each) and five ships of The Titanic wreck lies some 435 miles (700km) south of St John's, Newfoundland, and about a dozen ships have been in the area to help the rescue mission, which has been But as more ships and crews were added to the Union fleet, the blockade became more effective. The steam frigate USS Niagara arrived off the port of Charleston on May 10, and the sloop USS Brooklyn arrived at the mouth of the Mississippi River, 90 miles downstream from New Orleans on May 27, establishing a Union presence at the Souths two largest ports. During the war, another 23 warships (including Mahaska, Sebago, Conemaugh, Pawtucket, Sassacus, Ossipee, Sacramento, Nipsic, Shawmut, and Sonoma) were constructed in the yards facilities, which employed over 2,400 contractors throughout the conflict. Samuel L. Breese, November 1, 1858-February 1861 The Navy increased in size from 7,600 sailors in March 1861, to 22,000 that December. have In early November, the steam frigate USS. But the most famous of all the Confederate cruisers was the Alabama, commanded by Semmes, which captured 69 Federal ships in two years; not until June 19, 1864, was the Alabama intercepted and sunk off Cherbourg, France, by the Federal warship Kearsarge, captained by John Winslow. Submersibles are designed to withstand crushing underwater pressures, like those 12,500 feet below the surface. John A Dahlgren, July 5, 1863-1865. The American Battlefield Trust and our members have saved more than 56,000 acres in 25 states! George S. Blake, Superintendent of U.S. There was little doubt that the early blockade was weak; as few as 28 vessels were captured or destroyed between April and December 1861. The summary is not intended to be a comprehensive list of the all of the shipbuilding facilities, yards, and locations utilized by the North during the war. The plan called for a Union blockade of southern ports to cripple the Southern states' ability to trade cotton, the backbone of the Confederate economy. Built in 7different shipyards, they were armed with a mix of five smoothbore and rifled guns, and their wooden hulls were reinforced with iron braces. Additional Information U.S. Navy Ships - Index by Ship Name | National Archives Additional Information Because the coastline was so long, developing an effective blockade took several years. Thence Round Cape Horn (Annapolis, MD: United States Naval Institute, 1963), p 119. Commanders Authorization of bounties and draft quotas helped to ease the crew shortages, as did the transfer of army regiments into naval service. The Confederates, on the other hand, had to start from almost nothing in building a navy. The Navy isnt the only organization with this capability. To compensate, the upper three classes at the Naval Academy were commissioned into service, resulting in many 19-year-old lieutenants. A great many other Federal ships were captured, and marine insurance rates were driven to a prohibitive high by these Southern depredations. A barrier island off the coast of Mississippi, Ship Island was recognized early as a strategic location. Dahlgren helped the yard become a specialized location for testing naval ordnance. did Ship Island Construction also began on the other two approved ironclad designs before 1861 was over. First established in 1825, it was the ninth navy yard established in the United States and the only one on the Gulf of Mexico at the time. While maintaining the blockade proved challenging, the Union tightened its stranglehold on Southern commerce and trade by capturing and controlling port cities. The plan called for a Union. That is why the Confederate Navy employed ironclad ships in large numbers during the American Civil War. Ready for War? The Union Navy in 1861 - American Spencer C. Tucker. Housing two floating dry-docks, completed construction of eight warships (including Tuscarora, Juniata, Shenandoah, Kansas, Yantic, Monongahela, Miami, and Tacony) during the Civil War. The Anaconda Plan, favored by general-in-chief Winfield Scott, fitboth goals and demanded a heavy investment by the Navy. The Kalamazoo-class monitor Quinsigamond was also laid down here in 1864, but construction was suspended in late 1865. Union military planners were keen observers of naval technological advances that were taking place in Europe. Armstrong Undergraduate Journal of History - Georgia Washington, D.C. Email powered by MailChimp (Privacy Policy & Terms of Use), Stephen Russell Mallory, secretary of the navy of the Confederacy, Rear Admiral David Dixon Porter aboard USS, Broadside, The Conscript Bill! Gen. Ulysses S. Grant sought victory over Rebels in that border state. The Board proposed the capture of Cape Hatteras in North Carolina, Port Royal in South Carolina, Fernandina in Florida (at the Georgia border), and Ship Island on the Gulf coast of Mississippi. Civil War NavyThe Magazine, Volume 5, No. From a tiny force of nearly 9,000 seamen in 1861, the Union navy increased by wars end to about 59,000 sailors, whereas naval appropriations per year leaped from approximately $12 million to perhaps $123 million. Mare Island (San Francisco) Navy Yard Under international law, a blockade was a deterrent that Great Britain and France, both potential military and commercial trading partners of the Confederacy, would be forced to acknowledge. Down there, the pressure is about 400 times greater than at sea level. and they took part in nearly every naval battle of the war. Robert Erwin Johnson. Although there were some victories and the Union Navy was growing fast, the blockaders struggled to be effective through much of 1861. It was guarded by a battalion of over 150 marines. combined firepower, protection, and mobility needed on the rivers and they served the Army and later, the Navy, well into 1862 and beyond. The newly-established Ironclad Board of three senior naval officers ultimately received 17 designs for new ironclad warships, but approved only three for construction. Built on Fernalds Island on the Piscataqua River on the border between New Hampshire and Maine, ships were first constructed at this site in 1695. Navy yards in northern territory coordinated operations with the Navy Department and Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles and Assistant Secretary of the Navy Gustavus Fox. In fact, President Lincoln became close friends with John A. Dahlgren while he oversaw the yard in the wars first year. HMS Squirrel was a Royal Navy sixth-rate post ship, built in 1755.She served during the French and Indian War, most notably at Louisbourg Army volunteers from Charles R. Ellets Marine Brigade guarded the station until Union marines arrived in November 1862. With the loss of the Gosport and Warrenton Navy Yards to the Confederacy in 1861, Union officials began looking for a replacement yard. It also operated the USS Alleghany, a receiving ship used to train newly enlisted recruits. U.S. and Canadian ships and planes are swarming the area, some dropping sonar buoys that can monitor to a depth of 13,000 feet (3,962 meters), U.S. Coast Guard Rear Admiral John Mauger says. The next day, Army troops landed and captured the forts along with 700 prisoners. The blockade was a controversial proposal. Additional Information After the war, in 1869, a formalized yard was created at Goat Island to construct torpedo boats. The facilities also acted as homeport for the Potomac Flotilla. The Admiralty in London began a military build-up in Canada and in the western Atlantic. Sign up to receive the latest information on the American Battlefield Trust's efforts to blaze The Liberty Trail in South Carolina. New, large-caliber rifled guns required special mounting and ammunition. The search for the missing Titanic sub in maps and graphics At the end of WWII, the Navy terminated or cancelled almost all new ship construction contracts and only a few new ships were built in the Naval Shipyards thereafter. The Union: A Guide to Federal Archives Relating to the Civil War (Washington DC: National Archives and Records Administration, 1998), p 492-493. The First American President: Setting the Precedent, African Americans During the Revolutionary War, Help Save 125 Battlefield Acres in Virginia, Help Restore History at Gettysburg, Cold Harbor & More, Help Us Save Hallowed Ground in Tennessee and Kentucky, Help Save 820 Acres at Five Virginia Battlefields, Save 343 Acres at FIVE Battlefields in FOUR Western Theater States, Save 42 Historic Acres at the Battle of Chancellorsville, Support the American Battlefield Protection Program Enhancement Act, Stop the Largest Rezoning in Orange County History, Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion, Guns for Cotton: England Arms the Confederacy, Commander Will Cushing: Daredevil Hero of the Civil War, War on the Waters: The Union and Confederate Navies, 1861-1865, Now For the Contest: Coastal & Oceanic Naval Operations in the Civil War, Sea Wolf of the Confederacy: The Daring Naval Raids of Lt. Charles W. Read, Library of Congress Civil War Desk Reference, Forgotten Monitor: The Story of the USS Tecumseh.
Bell Middle School Map,
Small Event Venues Greenville, Sc,
Articles H